CITIES AND RIVERS

URBAN WATER COURSES

Humans have been managing rivers and utilising their water from as early as 6000BC in Mesopotamia (Douglas, 2013). Due to the benefits that easy access to water can provide, many cities were – and still are – built on rivers, lakes and near the sea. The relationship between urban life and the natural topography of the land is often in a state of tension, as humans try to manage natural water courses for their own needs. Which begs the question: is there a cultural imperative in cities to defy nature and topography?

Aqueducts (Figure 1) were utilised from as early as 1000BC in the ancient city of Nineveh (Douglas, 2013) to control the flow of water. Aqueducts gave cities access to fresh water, which could then be utilised for the irrigation of crops. Canals were also utilised for the access of water in ancient cities such as Chang’an. Despite this, canals were not embraced in the Western world until the 18^th century (Nichols, 2015). Canals allowed for easy transportation of goods – especially beneficial when transporting pottery, as roads were often unstable and therefore unreliable for safely transporting fragile objects. In addition, canals helped to avoid problems with flooding, as they were able to divert water flow away from the city (Douglas, 2013).

History tells us that cities could be made or broken based upon their access – or lack thereof – to water. Water sources allowed for easy irrigation of land and the subsequent production of crops, as well as providing cities with access to trade by boat. In addition to this, water could provide cities with a barrier from attackers, thus aiding defence (Douglas, 2013).

Despite human attempts to control the natural paths of watercourses through urban areas, it can often prove difficult. Even the use of concrete channels can prove ineffective at controlling watercourses. Rivers flow naturally, meandering along a dynamic and ever-changing path (Figure 2). Building a city near a water source often came with a variety of problems, including an increased risk of flooding and lack of sanitation. The unpredictable nature of watercourses lead to a desire for control, and in the early 15^th century the ‘ideal city’ was depicted by Fra Carnevale as one where water was confined solely to aesthetic purposes (Figure 3) in the urban setting.

 

  

The difficulties associated with building a city near a river were grossly evident in 19^th century London. The industrialisation of the city meant that waste material from mills and factories was often released into water channels (Douglas, 2013). In addition to this, it was common practice to dispose of household wastes into the streets, leading to widespread issues with public health and sanitation. In order to deal with the growing issues with widespread, waterborne disease, rivers would often be buried below streets. They could then be utilised as combined sewers, transporting the city’s waste and surface runoff away without coming into contact with its residents. The River Fleet ­– which used to run through central London, before heading northwest towards the Hampstead Heath – is a prime example of a buried river. The river was contaminated with waste materials from tanneries and factories in the city (Douglas, 2013), making it impassable for boats. The river was unsanitary, a danger to public health and no longer provided the benefits of access due to its reduced condition. As a result, the river began to be covered in part. Eventually, the entire river was covered up towards the Hampstead Heath, and the subterranean river now serves as a sewer (Talling, 2011).

While rivers were once covered in the interest of public health, the uncovering – or daylighting – of rivers is being implemented in attempts to better city life. The 21^st century has seen a shift towards focussing on mental health and wellbeing instead of physical health (Hebbert, 1999), and many people now desire a connection to nature in the urban setting. The Cheonggyecheon stream used to run through Seoul, Korea until the early 20^th century when it was covered for safety and public health purposes  (Chung, Hwang, & Bae, 2012). During the 1970s an expressway was built over the covered stream, as urbanisation of the land continued. The expressway proved to be an eyesore that impacted on the cultural life of the city (Lee & Anderson, 2014), and after investigation of public opinion, the expressway was removed in 2003. The restoration of the stream proved beneficial to Seoul, as improved air quality and cooler temperatures were reported (Chung et al., 2012), along with the benefit of more attractive public, urban space (Figure 4).

 

The human desire to utilise watercourses for their own needs is still prevalent in 21^st century society. Despite this, there has been a marked shift in interest towards mental health, and how urban form can impact upon wellbeing. The integration of green space and natural watercourses in the city has been implemented in cases such as Seoul, to great effect. Whether cases such as these are prediction of the new ‘ideal city’ remains to be seen.

REFERENCES:

Chung, J.H., Hwang, K.Y. & Bae, Y.K. (2012). The loss of road capacity and self-compliance: Lessons from the Cheonggyecheon stream restoration. Transport Policy, 21(1), 165-178.

Douglas, I. (2013). Cities: An Environmental History. London, England: I.B.

Tauris & Co. Ltd.

Hebbert, M. (1999). A city in good shape: Town planning and public health. Town Planning Review, 70(4), 433-453.

Lee, J. & Anderson, C. (2014). The Restored Cheonggyecheon and the Quality of Life in Seoul. Journal of Urban Technology 20(4), 3-22.

Nichols, D. (2015). Transport and its impact on cities. Lecture delivered for

Urban History, Melbourne, 17/3/2015. Available at

https://app.lms.unimelb.edu.au/bbcswebdav/pid-4749657-dt-content-rid16647370_2/courses/ABPL20034_2015_SM1/urban%20history%202015%20transport.pdf

Roman Aqueducts - Marvels of Engineering. (2015). Retrieved from

http://www.jw.org/en/publications/magazines/g201411/aqueducts-roman-engineering/

The Ideal City. (2015). Retrieved from

http://art.thewalters.org/detail/37626/the-ideal-city/

Talling, P. (2011). London’s Lost Rivers. London, England: Random House Books.

Wilkinson, J. (2010). Rio Negro Floodplain, Patagonia, Argentina: Image of the Day. Retrieved from http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=42640