CITIES AND RIVERS

URBAN WATER COURSES

Humans have been managing rivers and utilising their water from as early as 6000BC in Mesopotamia (Douglas, 2013). Due to the benefits that easy access to water can provide, many cities were – and still are – built on rivers, lakes and near the sea. The relationship between urban life and the natural topography of the land is often in a state of tension, as humans try to manage natural water courses for their own needs. Which begs the question: is there a cultural imperative in cities to defy nature and topography?

Aqueducts (Figure 1) were utilised from as early as 1000BC in the ancient city of Nineveh (Douglas, 2013) to control the flow of water. Aqueducts gave cities access to fresh water, which could then be utilised for the irrigation of crops. Canals were also utilised for the access of water in ancient cities such as Chang’an. Despite this, canals were not embraced in the Western world until the 18^th century (Nichols, 2015). Canals allowed for easy transportation of goods – especially beneficial when transporting pottery, as roads were often unstable and therefore unreliable for safely transporting fragile objects. In addition, canals helped to avoid problems with flooding, as they were able to divert water flow away from the city (Douglas, 2013).

History tells us that cities could be made or broken based upon their access – or lack thereof – to water. Water sources allowed for easy irrigation of land and the subsequent production of crops, as well as providing cities with access to trade by boat. In addition to this, water could provide cities with a barrier from attackers, thus aiding defence (Douglas, 2013).

Despite human attempts to control the natural paths of watercourses through urban areas, it can often prove difficult. Even the use of concrete channels can prove ineffective at controlling watercourses. Rivers flow naturally, meandering along a dynamic and ever-changing path (Figure 2). Building a city near a water source often came with a variety of problems, including an increased risk of flooding and lack of sanitation. The unpredictable nature of watercourses lead to a desire for control, and in the early 15^th century the ‘ideal city’ was depicted by Fra Carnevale as one where water was confined solely to aesthetic purposes (Figure 3) in the urban setting.

 

  

The difficulties associated with building a city near a river were grossly evident in 19^th century London. The industrialisation of the city meant that waste material from mills and factories was often released into water channels (Douglas, 2013). In addition to this, it was common practice to dispose of household wastes into the streets, leading to widespread issues with public health and sanitation. In order to deal with the growing issues with widespread, waterborne disease, rivers would often be buried below streets. They could then be utilised as combined sewers, transporting the city’s waste and surface runoff away without coming into contact with its residents. The River Fleet ­– which used to run through central London, before heading northwest towards the Hampstead Heath – is a prime example of a buried river. The river was contaminated with waste materials from tanneries and factories in the city (Douglas, 2013), making it impassable for boats. The river was unsanitary, a danger to public health and no longer provided the benefits of access due to its reduced condition. As a result, the river began to be covered in part. Eventually, the entire river was covered up towards the Hampstead Heath, and the subterranean river now serves as a sewer (Talling, 2011).

While rivers were once covered in the interest of public health, the uncovering – or daylighting – of rivers is being implemented in attempts to better city life. The 21^st century has seen a shift towards focussing on mental health and wellbeing instead of physical health (Hebbert, 1999), and many people now desire a connection to nature in the urban setting. The Cheonggyecheon stream used to run through Seoul, Korea until the early 20^th century when it was covered for safety and public health purposes  (Chung, Hwang, & Bae, 2012). During the 1970s an expressway was built over the covered stream, as urbanisation of the land continued. The expressway proved to be an eyesore that impacted on the cultural life of the city (Lee & Anderson, 2014), and after investigation of public opinion, the expressway was removed in 2003. The restoration of the stream proved beneficial to Seoul, as improved air quality and cooler temperatures were reported (Chung et al., 2012), along with the benefit of more attractive public, urban space (Figure 4).

 

The human desire to utilise watercourses for their own needs is still prevalent in 21^st century society. Despite this, there has been a marked shift in interest towards mental health, and how urban form can impact upon wellbeing. The integration of green space and natural watercourses in the city has been implemented in cases such as Seoul, to great effect. Whether cases such as these are prediction of the new ‘ideal city’ remains to be seen.

REFERENCES:

Chung, J.H., Hwang, K.Y. & Bae, Y.K. (2012). The loss of road capacity and self-compliance: Lessons from the Cheonggyecheon stream restoration. Transport Policy, 21(1), 165-178.

Douglas, I. (2013). Cities: An Environmental History. London, England: I.B.

Tauris & Co. Ltd.

Hebbert, M. (1999). A city in good shape: Town planning and public health. Town Planning Review, 70(4), 433-453.

Lee, J. & Anderson, C. (2014). The Restored Cheonggyecheon and the Quality of Life in Seoul. Journal of Urban Technology 20(4), 3-22.

Nichols, D. (2015). Transport and its impact on cities. Lecture delivered for

Urban History, Melbourne, 17/3/2015. Available at

https://app.lms.unimelb.edu.au/bbcswebdav/pid-4749657-dt-content-rid16647370_2/courses/ABPL20034_2015_SM1/urban%20history%202015%20transport.pdf

Roman Aqueducts - Marvels of Engineering. (2015). Retrieved from

http://www.jw.org/en/publications/magazines/g201411/aqueducts-roman-engineering/

The Ideal City. (2015). Retrieved from

http://art.thewalters.org/detail/37626/the-ideal-city/

Talling, P. (2011). London’s Lost Rivers. London, England: Random House Books.

Wilkinson, J. (2010). Rio Negro Floodplain, Patagonia, Argentina: Image of the Day. Retrieved from http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=42640

Week 4A- Life, Death and Disease in the City

Bianca Censori 638663

Living within a city holds opportunities, vitality and prospects, that being said, vast sizes of population compared to rural living obviously hold risk of poverty and disease.

How do cities prevent disease and filth? What needs to be considered in any case study of epidemic illness or plague within a city is why and how the issue is coming alight. Hebbert has claimed that ‘public health and town planning are blood brothers’ (Hebbert, 1999 pg. 433) in some cases this is extremely true, and to plan a city is to keep away its citizens from partial dangers or unsanitary areas. Fresh air was brought to light as a main concern on the health of citizens in a city, obviously a revelation on keeping residential areas next to rotting organic matter and closed space areas such as blind alleys created a ‘concentration of sickness and death’ (Hebbert, 1999 pg. 434), these gases were said to be ‘actual poison’ (Health of Towns Association, 1846) to the human health, has changed the ventilation health within cities, thus town planning must come in as a solution to the accumulation of filth and plays an extremely important role in health of civilians within the cities. ‘A free blow through’ (Hebbert, 1999 pg. 434) forced town planners to engage in ‘open streets’ (Hebbert 1999 pg. 434), the Grid approach in town planning is a very good example of this, the movement to encourage ventilation and natural light through the vast area of a city, opening streets at all ends of the city allows the free flow of air and pollution out of the city (Kostof, 1991).

Ventilation is not the only cause for disease within a city; a good example of this is the great plague of London in 1665, saw a vast uproar in rats carrying disease-ridden fleas, feeding off filth and human waste in the city (Lloyd Moote, 2004). Life within this time in a city encouraged dense living conditions and the first areas affected by the plague were the poorer districts, a large demand in living space encouraged landlords to create ‘dense development’ (Hebbert 1999 pg. 434). Rats were attracted to the filth of pollution and human waste within the cramped slums of London; this again results back to poor town planning. Living within population dense, poorly curated areas of pollution breeds the chance of poverty and disease, each and every individual living in these areas are more likely to come into contact with others who have the disease or a disease carrying vesicle. Encouraging an environment to thrive that induces disease to spread and flourish was a clear issue in early town development.  The great fire of 1666 saw a fairly successful solution to the pandemic of disease within London and it was chance for a ‘healthier’ town planning to arise (Hebbert 1999 pg. 435). The importance of city scape and urban development was projected to cut the death rate by a third, therefore encouraging Vitruvius’ (Hebbert 1999, pg 435) significance to alignment within the city and implementing sanitary norms directly contributed to the decrease in disease.  

 

Health concerns within a city does not always have to be physical. With a shift in ventilated, open street cities and sanitary norms individuals bring a light a different kind of illness within cities in the early 1900s. Mental stability and wellness can be associated with nature, water and greenery. The ‘garden City’ approach aimed to instantaneously link physical wellbeing and mental health within the city by encouraging interactive spaces, for example parks and green spaces within the city can allow for individuals to be exposed to the benefits of green spaces, as mentioned above, as well as utilize them for healthy interactions or exercise within a city that can sometimes feel isolating. This encourages a weighted importance for urban planners to refer to a ‘Garden City’ as a healthier approach to the mental wellbeing of citizens. Encouraging cities full of playgrounds, gardens and parks was seen to allow individuals to have ‘informal grouping around green space’ (Hebbert, 1999 pg. 239) increasing the sociability within a city with careful town planning and spaces that invite individuals to congregate can heavily encourage the amiability and mental wellbeing of the city dwellers.

 

A large portion of city health had been focused on physical layout of the city, Sir Francis Galton shifted the focus from the environmental city itself to the actually citizens within the city. In 1908 he founded the Eugenics Society, which in short aimed to encourage the genetic quality by urging individuals with desired characteristics to procreate. (Hebbert, 1999, pg 443) This ideology pushes that the environment is not to blame for wellbeing in the city but much rather population is able to create individuals that are born ‘healthy’. Although this may sound like it would benefit population as a whole, in the early implementation of eugenics a tendency for forced sterilization was extremely mentally detrimental for citizens (Murdock 1974), although the population as a whole would be rid of these ‘undesirable characters’ the effect on health to individuals was huge and a promotion of these unethical procedures begins to build as a culture in cities creating social segregation and self induced superiority.

It is clear that urban planning plays a large role in the mental and physical wellbeing within the public of cities. To produce an ‘ideal city’ free of illness of all kinds to citizens, many factors including appropriate disposal of waste, suitable density of living, ventilation and spaces that encourage movement and sociability need to be considered in the placement of the city. Obviously as our society develops and changes new problems within urbanized cities, which have not been seen as important prior, arise and therefore it is left to planners to find a solution to issues whilst aiming to produce city spaces with ‘various functioning part’ (Mumford, 1938).

References:

A.     Lloyd Moote, ‘The Great Plague: The story of London’s most deadly Year’ 2004

Charles W. Murdock, ‘Steilizaion of the Retarded: A Problem or a Solution?’ California Law Review: Vol. 62. 1974

Health of Towns Association (Pamphlet), ‘Why are towns Unhealthy?’ Health of Towns Association Manchaster and Salford, 1846

Michael Hebbert, ‘A City in Good Shape: Town Planning and public Health’ Town Planning Review 70 (4) 1999, pp. 443-453

Lewis Mumford, ‘The Culture of Cities’, London, Martin Secker & Warburg, 1938

Spiro Kostof, ‘The Grid’ in Kostof, The City shaped London: Thames and Hudson, 1991 pp. 95-123

Fig 1. The Vitruvian Man. 2015. The Vitruvian Man. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.vivamalta.net/VMforum/index.php?topic=4428.0. [Accessed 26 March 2015]

 Fig 2. Ebenezer Howard - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 2015. Ebenezer Howard - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [ONLINE] Available at:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebenezer_Howard. [Accessed 26 March 2015].

Paper Blog - An extensive review of the orthogonal grid.

 Kevin Lynch once stated that there were 3 basic models to urban planning ; cosmic, practical and organic.( Rybczinski, W. (1995)) Within these categories lies the grid, one of the most simplistic form of urban planning as well as the commonest. ( Kostof,S. 1991) Sir William Chambers once said, “ Man walks in a straight line because he has a goal and knows where is going”. ( Kostof,S. 1991). Much of that statement has been implemented into the fundamentals of the grid concept. Its uniform, checkerboard pattern makes the grid exceedingly flexible and capable of adapting into various environmental and situational difficulties. ( Kostof,S. 1991) It can be assumed that because of its capabilities the grid is has been used many times throughout history, dating back the Ancient Greek era.

 It is difficult to trace the earliest conception of grid planning. While there are many claims that Hippodamus of Miletus was the father of the grid planning, there is no definitive evidence of him being the first to develop the orthogonal grid. (M, Luigi. 2009) However, it is known that he expanded upon it within the notion of theoretical population division he turned that concept into a plan. (M, Luigi. 2009) The earliest use of the grid plan dates back to 2150 BC in the Indus Valley . (M, Luigi. 2009) Following that was babylon’s grid plan . The streets of Babylon described by Herodotus are parallel, intersecting straight streets.( Kostof,S. 1991). However, Babylon hadn’t utilised the grid to its fullest potential in that it lacked any form of coordinated system such as divided areas of distinct functions. It was in the late 1 millennium BC that Beijing utilised the grid plan as a formal system. ( Kostof,S. 1991) The Chinese grid was specifically designed with a political and symbolic purpose. (Henderson, S. 2002) The city had been built under strict hierarchical and Feng Shui ideas, with the intention of creating harmony between nature and manmade objects. (Henderson, S. 2002) With that said, buildings had been built with differing sizes with the biggest being the most prominent. (Henderson, S. 2002) In addition to that, to ensure that the grid was adaptable to geographical conditions, avenues were built east and west with consideration of wind directions. Courtyards built long enough to ensure the optimum amount of sunlight and the city was built above a waterway , ensuring that there would a good sewage system . (Henderson, S. 2002)

 Figure 1. Ancient Beijing Grid Plan. ( The Beijing Report, 2014)

Figure 2 - Babylon’s grid plan (Planology. 2010)

It was not until 1837 that Robert Hoddle implemented the grid into Melbourne’s infrastructure. (Smith, M. 2014) It was built with the intention of trams being the primary method of public transportation. (Smith, M. 2014) Eventually divisions for commercial, administrative and residential were created.There have been other uses of the Grid plan throughout the world e.g. , Barcelona , Piraeus and Los Angeles. The grid’s simplistic , logical nature makes it one of the most reliable plans . However, saying that is simply touching the surface of it’s capabilities.

 Upon looking deeper into the plan, it’s easy to see that what makes it so unique is that the basic orthogonal layout present variables that can be adjusted before, during and after development . This allows it to adapt to a varying geographical situations. Kostof outlines what an urban planner might consider when approaching the grid e.g. the size and shape of the block, open spaces , accommodation ,the nature of the street grid, aspects that are imperative during the construction of a city. Aside from that, it was the most militaristic way of approaching planning. The grid building blocks were kept uniform in size unless the buildings were used to display a hierarchy. ( Kostof,S. 1991). In addition to that, divisions were made in respect to the political hierarchy. Kostof suggested suggest that“ the orthogonal plan froze the spatial structure to reflect an unalterable hierarchy: it put in isolated urban envelopes the palace precinct , administration , religion and housing according to class “. ( Kostof,S. 1991). r

Figure 3. La Barceloneta ( Google Maps, 2015)

 Angle of the orthogonal layout can be adapted to the grid in such a way that a separate type of planning can be integrated with the grid. This can be seen in Figure 3, where the grid has been isolated to the very edge of Barcelona. Aside from that, the grid functions best in medium to high density.(Knight, P. 2012) Therefore, it improves the walkability of the city’s infrastructure. Navigation throughout the city is never difficult because the streets are parallel and straight. (Knight, P. 2012) Traffic can be rerouted easily if one area is affected by congestion. The list goes on

 Unfortunately, the orthogonal grid most defining characteristic is also its biggest flaw. The orthogonal grid , albeit being adaptable and diverse, has to maintain the streets parallel and orthogonal. This results in a lack of imagination in pursuit a logical approach to planning, as Kostof states “ the versatility of program within what is possible to see as a simple-minded , uninspired , unvarying formula has brought the grid many detractors”. ( Kostof,S. 1991) However, coasted rebuts by stating “ any grid holds the potential to become a beautiful city over time depending on how it’s fleshed out. The architect, the social planner have their chance once the two dimensional diagram in place. “ ( Kostof,S. 1991).

 With that said, if aesthetics are simply the issue with the grid plan. Is it the best? Or are there any better alternatives ? Our world currently faces a different issue compared to the era before us. With carbon emission increasing, global warming is affecting our climate heavily and climate change is becoming a larger threat. The grid plan was the answer to city that required high efficiency, easy navigation and political symbol. Perhaps the grid is the logical answer in minimising car dependancy and promoting walkability. However it is important to remember that with technology , we can reinvent planning to make it smarter and even more efficient. Perhaps one day , the grid might even be obsolete.


References Google Maps .(2015), La Barceloneta, Spain. Retrieved from < https://www.google.com.au/maps/place/La+Barceloneta,+Barcelona,+Spain/ @41.3811192,2.189196,15z/data=!4m2!3m1!1s0x12a4a30709605c93:0x2600fae14082f052>

Henderson, S. (2002), Comparison of The City Grid In Manhattan To Beijing. Retrieved from < http://contactzw.freeservers.com/paper-city%20grip.htm>

Kostof, S. (1991), ‘The Grid’ in Kostof, The City shaped London: pp. 95 - 123. Thames and Hudson.

Knight, P. (2012), Why The Grid Is A Great Asset To Cities. Retrieved from < http:// sustainablecitiescollective.com/theamericangrid/34437/fallacies-against-grid >

Luigi, M. (2009), Plan And Constitution- Aristotle’s Hippodamus: Towards An ‘ Ostensive’ Definition Of Spatial Planning . pp. 1 - 29

Rybczinski,W. (1995) ‘The Measure Of A Town’ in Rybczinski City Life: Urban Expectations In A New World. pp. 35-50

Planology, (2014). “ Babylon’s Grid Plan”. Retrieved from < https://planologie.wordpress.com/2010/02/08/a-brief-history-of-grid-plans-ancient-torenaissance/> 

Smith, M. (2012) , Robert Hoddle’s Grid And The Birth Of Melbourne. Retrieved from < http:// www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/bydesign/robert-hoddles-grid-and-the-birth-of-melbourne/ 5703114 >

The Beijing Report. (2015), “ Ancient Beijing Grid Plan”. Retrieved from < http://www.drben.net/ChinaReport/Beijing/MapsofBeijing/Historic_Maps_Beijing/Beijing-Layout_Imperial_City.html>

Name: Tara Shokouhi

Student Number: 635693

Tutorial Day/Time: Monday, 10am

Tutor: Claire Miller

Reading: ‘The railway as an agent of internal change in Victorian Cities: the inner districts and the suburbs’ - John Kellett

Topic Week: 3A - Transportation and its impact on cities

BLAMING VICTORIAN RAILWAYS

John R. Kellett (1969) discusses numerous surfacing aspects to the introduction of railway systems in British cities in his piece The railway as an agent of internal change in Victorian cities: the inner districts and the suburbs. The two parts of the chapter focus primarily on the initial conception of the railways, the districts of the time and the effect this caused within the cities and its people, before continuing onto analysing the industrial effects of such on the transportation of supplies between factories and businesses. The text forms a strong analysis of both arguments present during the initial introduction of the railways, as Kellett begins by blaming the railways for the faults of the city, before challenging this theory and delving into the antithesis of such. His ability to intricately lace together both alternate views and their evidence is the basis for his strongly supported text.

Figure 1: A photograph of one of the first railway trains in Victorian Cities in the early 1800’s. Source:  http://northwesthistoryexpress.com/timeline/transportation1800/PennsylvaniaTrain.jpg

Kellett commences the chapter by immediately presenting the introduction of railway developments in a negative light during the British cities. Through his tone of complete disdain he aims to exhibit and demonstrate that the railways’ intent to ‘compress the areas which were within walking range of the city centre, to interrupt communications between them, to stabilise their land values for residential uses and their improvement prospects.’ (Kellett 1969, p. 337). Developing his argument, Kellett’s inclusion of surveys and evidence to support the notion that transportation brought along with it, significant issues for the spaces in which they were constructed. British cities experienced rapid population growth, and the lower class citizens found it difficult to afford a better living. While focusing primarily on the accusations placed on the introduction of railways and their negative impacts on towns and districts, Kellett does not fail to reveal the alternative theory behind such accusations, eventually drawing conclusions and exclaiming that such faults did not lie with the railway companies.

One of the most notable aspects of this text as predominant in the first section of the chapter, perhaps, is the rapid manner in which Kellett’s  contention and arguments alter. While this appears as a crucial flaw in the structure of the writing, it eventually allows for a complete and rounded understanding of the topic. Commencing with a strong stance and negative perception on the issue at hand, Kellett highlights the accusations and continues to expose the realities behind these. Eventually he acknowledges that railways were not the primal source and basis of the impairments, he denotes that the introduction of such transportation ‘worsened the situation’ (Kellett 1969, p. 342) for already ‘densely occupied and makeshift inner suburbs’. However, the most consequential outcome of their injection into society was that of their specific placement into inner districts that halted their ability to improve residential placements, where they were secured in a state of rejection. The strength of this text lies within Kellett’s ability to demonstrate the manner in which the railways cemented the already divided distracts and classes within the Victorian era, providing an almost impossible scenario for positive development. However, the single flaw would be that of the lacking statistical evidence where it would appear beneficial. While numerous sources are provided, quotes and experiment results, the exclusion of statistical datum where necessary provides lacking support to his arguments. 

The importance of planning and preparation before the execution of transportation becomes strictly eminent within Kellett’s text, as larger portions of the amplified faults caused by the railways could have been avoided. While the railways did not contribute and assist with the diminishing value of the land, the over-populated and crowded spaces and the environmental state of the city, numerous aspects could have been avoided had the planning been done with more intricate and detailed attention being paid to the placement of the railways.  This resulting placement of railways exposed the harsh realities of the lower-class districts to travellers of the railways behind the safety of the railway glass windows, a notion emphasised by Kellett and demonstrated further by authors of the time such has Charles Dickens. Literature set within the victorian era often included scenes at the railways, as the phenomena was a new concept all together. In addition to Dickens and his passage in Dombey and Son presented by Kellett, other authors such as Thomas Hardy and George Eliot introduced railways within their novels of Jude the Obscure (1895) and Middlemarch (1874), respectively. Hardy’s depiction of the community’s response to the railways was that of a positive one as he portrayed the victorians as associating the notion of modernity and progress with that the railways. Where Dickens reveals the realities often masked by the beauty of a progressing city, Hardy demonstrates the blinded viewpoint of victorians whom were blissfully unaware of the negative results of the railways. Alternatively, Eliot portrays the victorian’s directly influenced by the introduction of such a dramatic change and development.

The introduction of the railways did not only effect the city and the people within it, but also played a part in the industrial aspect of the cities, as Kellett continues to discuss in the second part of the chapter. The industrial sector in Victorian times was either in the ‘inner districts, to the river side or to more distant suburbs’ (Kellett 1969, p.346) and due to their prominence at the time, it became increasingly difficult to differentiate and assign credible blame to whether railways or the industry were more to blame for continuing negative issues presented.Kellett discusses the decision by thriving businesses, to continue using canals after concluding that  the use of railways for transportation of their goods was ‘slow and uneconomic’, a fact depicted in the constant congestion of the Victorian Manufacturing crescent.  Despite producing supplies in support of railways such as engines and rolling stock, effective transportation methods were essential, and for this reason, canals were preferred. Presenting an alternate means of transporting goods, Kellett introduces the use of canals that were constructed 25 years before railways and continued to be a better fit for transportation long after their introduction and while canals harboured their own problems (Mukerji 2013), they dimmed in significance and were more practical when placed by railways.

Discussing and presenting issues associated with that of the establishment of railways, Kellett’s text introduces the flaws of the system and the varying issues that ameliorated the introduction of modern transportation. From this reading it can be deduced that the development of cities needs to be conducted with careful consideration and intricate planning to ensure that the transition is a positive change that reduces issues as opposed to created more.

References:

Dickens, C 1848, Dombey and Son, Bradley & Evans, England.

Elliot, G 1874, Middlemarch, England, Oxford University Press.

Hardy, T 1895, Jude the Obscure, Osgood, Mcllvaine, & Co..

Kellett, J.R 1969, The Impact of Railways on Victorian Cities, Oxon, Routledge, pp. 337 - 353.

Mukerji, C 2013, ‘Cartography, Entrepreneurialism, and Power in the Reign of Louis XIV. The Case of the Canal du Midi’, in P Smith & P Findlen, Merchants and Marvels: Commerce Science and Art in Early Modern Europe, Hoobken:Taylor and Francis, pp. 248 - 276.